Non-past		Past
Affirmative	Ｖて	います	Ｖて	いました
Negative	Ｖて	いません	Ｖて	いませんでした

For example:

	Non-past	Past
Affirmative	たべています	たべていました
	is eating	was eating
Negative	たべていません	たべていませんでした
	is not eating	was not eating

More examples:

	Ｖている
(今) 日本ごを	べんきょうしています。	I am studying Japanese (now).
ソニーで	はたらいています。	(He) is working at Sony.
スミスさんは ともだちと	はなしています。	Smith is talking with her friends.
田中さんは うちで てがみを	かいていました。	Tanaka was writing a letter at home.
まいにち、インターネットを	つかっています。	I'm using the Internet everyday. [repeated action]
うちで ペットを	かっています。 (かう: to keep [pets]; not the same verb as かう: buy )	I am keeping a pet at home.

As you already know, not every sentence in Japanese requires the subject such as わたし or ぼく. If the subject is understood from the context, it is naturally dropped from the sentence. This does not mean that person pronouns are unimportant in Japanese. In fact, Japanese has an elaborate system of person pronouns, and they are chosen according to various factors---how close the speaker is toward the listener in terms of social ranking or intimacy, or how polite and/or formal the speaker would like to be, etc.

First Person
私 {わたし, わたくし [formal]}	I, me (generic)
ぼく	I, me (male)
おれ	I, me [blunt] (male)
私たち	we, us (generic)
ぼくたち	we, us (male)
Second Person
あなた	you (toward a peer or subordinate person)
きみ	you (toward a peer or subordinate person)
おまえ	you [blunt] (toward a peer or subordinate person)
Third Person
かれ	he
かれら	they (generic)
かのじょ	she
かのじょたち	they (female)

If you are a beginner of Japanese, it is best to avoid using any of the second person pronouns. The second person pronouns are used in limited situations and ONLY when you are talking to someone with an equal or lower ranking in terms of age, social status, etc. Names (e.g., 田中さん, ケントくん, etc.) are used far more commonly than person pronouns. It is extremely offensive to use them when you are speaking with strangers or someone with a higher social ranking. See the culture notes.

Another function of the Ｖています form is to express a state resulting from a completed action or event. Instead of "V-ing," this translates to "Something has V-ed." Verbs used in this interpretation refer to a change of state (e.g., けっこんする "to get married" --- change from "single" to "married").

けっこんしました

けっこんしています

With the verb けっこんする ("to get married") or りこんする ("to get divorced"), the following expressions are possible.

けっこんします。 りこんします。	future action	I am going to get married. I am going to get divorced.
けっこんしません。 りこんしません。	future action	I am not going to get married. I am not going to get divorced.
けっこんしました。 りこんしました。	past action	I got married. I got divorced.
けっこんしませんでした。 りこんしませんでした。	past action	I did not get married. I did not get divorced.
けっこんしています。 りこんしています。	present state	I am married. I am divorced.
けっこんしていません。 りこんしていません。	present state	I am not married. I am not divorced.
けっこんしていました。 りこんしていました。	past state	I had been married. / I was married. I had been divorced. / I was divorced.
けっこんしていませんでした。 りこんしていませんでした。	past state	I had not been married. / I was not married. I had not been divorced. / I was not divorced.

If 今（いま） is used, the verb ending must be ています as in １０年まえに けっこんしましたが、今は りこんしています.

Compare the following expressions using やせる (る-verb: to lose weight) and ふとる (う-verb: to gain weight).

Past	Present	Past	Present
やせていました (ふとっていませんでした)	ふとっています (やせていません)	ふとっていました (やせていません でした)	やせています (ふとっていません)

Other expressions that use the resultant state verbs are shown below. Be careful with the verbs つとめる and はたらく below. They take different particles --- に and で, respectively.

先生は ふるい くるまを もって います。	The teacher has an old car. (has changed from "no car" to "has a car")
私はかぜを ひいています。	I have a cold. (かぜを ひく: to catch a cold; have changed from "healthy" to "sick")
ソニーに つとめています。 ソニーで はたらいています。	(He) is working for Sony. (He) is working at Sony.
すずきさんはアトランタに すんでいます。	Ms. Suzuki lives in Atlanta.

The Ｖています form of motion verbs (e.g., いきます, きます, かえります, でます, でかけます) describes a state resulting from "coming" and "going." (Note: For the verb いく, it can express a repeated action of "going somewhere (every day)".)

いっています 　is going (every day) or went and is there now	まいにち、がっこうに いっています。 I'm attending school every day. [repeated actions]
	すず木さんの お父さんは ちゅうごくに いっています。 Mr. Suzuki's father has gone to China.
きています 　came and is here now	ともだちが日本から きています。 A friend has come from Japan (and she is still here).
かえっています 　returned and is at home now	田中さんの お兄さんは うちに かえっています。 Ms. Tanaka's older brother has returned home (and he is at home).
でています 　went out and is out now	大学を でています。 I have graduated from a college.
	あたらしい えいがが でています。 A new movie is out.
でかけています 　went out and is out now	いもうとは スーパーへ でかけています。 My younger sister has gone out to the supermarket.
いんたいしています retired and is not working now	父はがっこうの先生でしたが、今は いんたいしています。 My father was a school teacher, but he is now retired.

 

Earlier, we learned the particle と (e.g., NとN) can be used to combine nouns. However, と cannot combine phrases or sentences (i.e., あさ、おきました と、 シャワーを あびました is ungrammatical). Instead, we use て forms to combine two or more phrases or sentences. The て-form of い-adjectives ends with くて (Delete い and add くて: たかい → たかくて) and the て-form of な-adjectives and nouns are ～で (e.g., べんりで and 先生で). Caution: When combining phrases with a て-form, the two phrases need to be compatible or semantically not opposite of one another.

とき is a noun referring to "time." The structures /Nの とき/ or /い-Adj とき/ or /な-Adjな とき/ can be used to refer to the time when something happens.

Noun の Adjective	とき	Event
２５さいの	とき	けっこんしました。	At the age of 25, I got married.
こどもの	とき	よく 本を よみました。	When I was a child, I often read books.
ひまな	とき	えいがに いきませんか。	When you are not busy, won't you go to a movie?
いそがしい	ときは	たべません。	When I'm busy (at least), I don't eat.

When referring to one's own family members while speaking to an outgroup person, we use humble terms () as shown below.

When referring to the members of another's family (outgroup), we use honorific terms () as shown below. Given names or nicknames are used to refer to someone younger than the speaker. The title くん (for young males) or ちゃん (a child form of さん, often used for young females) is often used with the names.

Ingroup Use of Family Terms When you address your own family members directly, we use the honorific terms () for the older members, and their first names for the younger ones.

Extended Family Terms

FYI: One's spouses can be referred to by other generic terms such as おっと ("husband") and つま ("wife"). おっと and つま are less commonly used. boy(s): 男の子; girl(s): 女の子

The following are examples of describing family members.

• 姉 {あね} は はたちで、大学二年生です。
  "My older sister is 20 years old and is a sophomore in college."
  
  
• 父 {ちち} は ４８さいで、ＩＢＭにつとめていて、母 {はは} は４０で、じえいぎょうを しています。
  "My father is 48, is working for IBM, and my mother is 40 and is self-employed."
  
  
• そふは ぎんこういんでしたが、５年まえに いんたいして、今は はたらいていません。
  "My grandfather was a banker, but he retired 5 years ago and now he is not working."

To count people, the counter 人 (pronounced り or にん) is used. り is used for up to two people. To count more than two people, use the counter にん as shown below.

To count people's (or animal's) age, we use the つ counter (1-10 years old) or the さい counter (any age).

1	一つ {ひとつ}	一さい {いっさい}	one year old
2	二つ {ふたつ}	二さい {にさい}	two years old
3	三つ {みっつ}	三さい {さんさい}	three years old
4	四つ {よっつ}	四さい {よんさい}	four years old
5	五つ {いつつ}	五さい {ごさい}	five years old
6	六つ {むっつ}	六さい {ろくさい}	six years old
7	七つ {ななつ}	七さい {ななさい}	seven years old
8	八つ {やっつ}	八さい {はっさい}	eight years old
9	九つ {ここのつ}	九さい {きゅうさい}	nine years old
10	十 {とお}	十さい {じゅっさい}	ten years old
20		はたち	twenty years old
?	いくつ	何さい	How old? How many years old?

A typical introduction of one's own family members (ingroup) involves the family term and their names. You refer to your own members with これ ("this here"). これ is considered humble in this case. In contrast, こちら, そちら, あちら are used to refer to other's family members. These demonstrative nouns are considered honorific.

Referring to outgroup members	Referring to ingroup members
そちらは　おくさんですか。 Is this over here your wife?	ええ、これは　かないの　ゆうこです。 This is my wife, Yuko.
そちらは　ごしゅじんですか。 Is this over here your husband?	ええ、これは　しゅじんの　けんいちです。 This is my husband, Ken'ichi.
そちらは　お父 {とう} さんですか。 Is this over here your father?	ええ、これは　父 {ちち} の　よしおです。 This is my father, Yoshio.
そちらは　お母 {かあ} さんですか。 Is this over here your mother?	ええ、これは　母 {はは} の　まりこです。 This is my mother, Mariko.
そちらは　おとうとさんですか。 Is this over here your younger brother?	ええ、これは　おとうとの　かずやです。 This is my younger brother, Kazuya.
そちらは　いもうとさんですか。 Is this over here your younger sister?	ええ、これは　いもうとの　けいこです。 This is my younger sister, Keiko.
そちらは　むすこさんですか。 Is this over here your son?	ええ、これは　むすこの　けんじです。 This is my son, Kenji.
そちらは　おこさんですか。 Is this over here your child?	ええ、これは　こどもの　めぐみです。 This is my child, Megumi.

You can also use the expression うち("my house"). うちの is equivalent to the English expression "my..." (Lit. "my house's").

これ は	うち の	Family Term です。
これは	うちの	母です。	This is my mother.
これは	うちの	こです or こどもです。	This is our child.

The same caution applies to talking about one's own family members.

Q:	お父さんは どのぐらい アメリカに いますか。	How long has your father been in the U.S.?
	お父さんは どのぐらい アメリカに いらっしゃいますか。
A:	父は ５年ぐらい アメリカに います。	My father has been in the U.S. for 5 years.

いらっしゃいます is an honorific form of the verb います. NEVER use honorific verbs for your own family members. 父は アメリカに いらっしゃいます is completely unacceptable.

It is a mistake to use the outgroup family term (e.g., お父さん) used by outgroup members when you refer to your own family members. Be sure to use the ingroup term (e.g., 父).

When you introduce others' family members (outgroup) to someone, you refer to them with こちら ("this here"). こちら is considered an honorific term in this case.

Out-Group Introduction

こちら は	Family Term の	Name さんです。
こちらは	いもうとさんの	けいこさんです。	This is his/her younger sister Keiko.
こちらは	お父さんの	よしおさんです。	This is his/her father Yoshio.
こちらは	むすめさんの	まりさんです。	This is his/her daughter Mari.
こちらは	おくさんの	ゆうこさんです。	This is his wife Yuko.
こちらは	ごしゅじんの	けんいちさんです。	This is her husband Ken'ichi.

You can also use the following expression to introduce others' family members.

こちら は	Name さんの	Family Term です。
こちらは	田中さんの	お母さんです。	This is Ms. Tanaka's mother.

Note: If the person to be introduced is not nearby the speaker, other demonstratives (それ, あれ or そちら, あちら) can be used.

• きる or きます [る-verb]: to wear on the upper body (suit, shirt, etc.)
• はく or はきます [う-verb]: to wear on the lower body (pants, skirts, shoes)
• かぶる or かぶります [う-verb]: to wear on the head (hat)
• かける or かけます [る-verb]: to wear by hanging (primarily for glasses)
• する or します: to wear by attaching (necktie, scarf, ribbon, glasses, wrist watch, earrigns, rings, etc.)
• もつ or もちます: to have/hold/carry (a bag)

The resultant state Vています form needs to be used to describe what people are currently wearing as follows. Note that we use different clothing verbs for different clothes.

		Vて	います
まりさんは	スカートを	はいて	います。	Mari is wearing a skirt.
ブラウンさんは	くろいくつを	はいて	います。	Mr. Brown is wearing black shoes.
スミスさんは	めがねを	かけて	います。	Mr. Smith is wearing glasses.
よしだ先生は	ネクタイを	して	います。	Prof. Yoshida is wearing a necktie.
田中さんは	ぼうしを	かぶって	います。	Ms. Tanaka is wearing a hat.
きむらさんは	スーツを	きて	います。	Mr. Kimura is wearing a suit.

	コートを	きています。	She is wearing a coat.
	てぶくろを マフラーを	しています。 しています。	She is wearing gloves. She is wearing a scarf.
	ぼうしを	かぶっています。	She is wearing a hat.
	ズボンを	はいています。	She is wearing pants.
	本を	もっています。	She is holding a book.
	ブーツを	はいています。	She is wearing boots.

The following are body part terms for describing people's physical appearances and additional adjectives and nouns.

1: 目{め} (eye) 2: 耳 {みみ} (ear) 3: はな (nose) 4: かみ (hair) 5: 口 {くち} (mouth) 6: は /ha/ (teeth) 7: くび (neck)

1: からだ (body) 2: 手 {て} (hand/arm) 3: あたま (head) 4: かお (face) 5: 足 {あし} (leg/foot) 6: むね (chest) 7: おなか (stomach) 8: ゆび (finger/thumb/toe) 9: せ (height of a person)

round	まる (n) or まるい (い-adj)	slender, skinny, wiry	ほそい (い-adj)	long	ながい (い-adj)	long & skinny	ほそながい (い-adj)
rectangular	しかく (n) or しかくい (い-adj)	thick	ふとい (い-adj)	short	みじかい (い-adj)	tall vs. short	せがたかい (い-adj) vs. せがひくい (い-adj)

	あか (n) あかい (い-adj)		みどり (n) グリーン (n)		しろ (n) しろい (い-adj)
	あお (n) あおい (い-adj)		ちゃいろ (n) ちゃいろい (い-adj)		はいいろ (n) グレー (n)
	きいろ (n) きいろい (い-adj)		オレンジ (n)		くろ (n) くろい (い-adj)

～は～が structure is used to describe physical appearances of something or someone. This is often translated as "Someone has ..." or "Someone's ... is/are ..." as shown below. To combine two expressions, て form is used.

Topic は	Property が
まりさんは	せが かみが	ひくいです/たかいです。 みじかいです。	Mari is short / tall. Mari's hair is short. (= has short hair.)
田中さんは	目{め} が 口 {くち} が	大きいです。　 小さいです。	Tanaka's eyes are big. (= has big eyes) Tanaka's mouth is small.
田中さんは	目が大きくて、口が小さいです。		Tanaka's eyes are big and her mouth is small.
きむらさんは	足 {あし} が 手 {て} が	ほそいです。 ふといです。	Kimura's legs are skinny. (= has skinny legs) Kimura's arms are thick.
きむらさんは	足がほそくて、手がふといです。		Kimura legs are skinny and her arms are thick.
おかださんは	かおが	まるいです。 しかくいです。 ほそながいです。 きれいです。	Okada's face is round. (= has a round face) Okada's face is shaped like a rectangular. Okada's face is long and narrow. Okada's face is pretty.
おかださんは	かおがまるくて、きれいです。		Okada's face is round and pretty.
スミスさんは	かみが	くろいです。 ちゃいろいです。 きんぱつです。 ながいです。 みじかいです。	Smith's hair is black. (= has black hair) Smith's hair is brown. Smith's hair is blonde. Smith's hair is long. Smith's hair is short.
スミスさんは	かみが 目が 日本ごが	きんぱつです。 あおいです。 じょうずです。	Smith's hair is blonde. (= has blond hair) Smith's eyes are blue. Smith is good at Japanese.
スミスさんは	かみがきんぱつで、目があおくて、 日本ごがじょうずです。		Smith's hair is blonde, eyes are blue and her Japanese is good.

If the expressions being combined are opposite in nature (e.g., positive vs. negative), けど or が connective is more likely to be used.

• あのスーパーはあたらしくて、大きいです。(Both positive values: "new and big")
• あのスーパーはあたらしいですけど、小さいです。(Positive and negative values: "new but small")
• あのスーパーはやさいがきれいで、やすいです。(Both positive values: "pretty/clean and cheap")
• あのスーパーはやさいがきれいですが、たかいです。(Positive and negative values: "pretty/clean but expensive")

The expressions shown above can be stated in separate sentences by using それに ("furthermore"), そして ("and"). When combining them with それに or そして, make sure they are not opposite in nature. If the descriptions are opposite in nature, use けど、が、or でも instead.

• スミスさんは、かみが ながくて、目{め} が 大きいです。
  ⇒ スミスさんは、かみが ながいです。それに (or そして)、目が 大きいです。
  
  
• 山田さんは、せが ひくくて、足 {あし} が ふといです。
  ⇒ 山田さんは、せが ひくいですけど、足 {あし} は ふといです。
  ⇒ 山田さんは、せが ひくいです。でも、足は ふといです。

We have seen so far that a noun can be modified by another noun (田中さんのくるま "Mr. Tanaka's car") or an adjective (ふるい本 "old book"). A noun can also be modified by a clause (or a sentence within a sentence). This structure is called a "modifying clause" which is similar to a relative clause in English. A modifying clause is required to be in the plain form. If the modifying clause ends with a plain, non-past affirmative copula だ (e.g., テニスが じょうずだ and かみが きんぱつだ), だ changes to な for な-adjective sentences (See ◆ below), and だ changes to の for noun sentences (See ● below).

The English translations of these structures often require a relative pronoun (e.g., that, in which, who, where, etc.). Note that the Japanese structures do not have a relative pronoun, and the particles associated with the modified noun (e.g., と "with" marked by ★ above) are dropped entirely while the English translation retains these particles.

The subject marker が within a modifying clause can be replaced by the particle の.

かみのくろい

男の人

the man whose hair is dark

The /modifying clause + N/ pattern is a recurring pattern in Japanese, so it is worth investing time to practice it. For example, it can be used as a topic of the sentence:

Topic		Comment
Modifying Clause + N	P
あの かみの ながい 女の人	は	田中さんです。
The woman whose hair is long		is Ms.Tanaka.

The modifying part of the sentence can be long and complex. The modifying clause below contains two adjectives combined with a て-form ("and") in addition to the prenominal あの in front.

Q:	あの、せが たかくて、うたが じょうずな人は だれですか。 "Who is that person who is tall and good at singing?"
A:	ああ、あの人はブラウンさんですよ。

Earlier, we learned the /Plain-Present V + の/ structure (e.g., およぐのが すきです "I like swimming."). This is essentially a clause modifier structure with a clause modifier (およぐ) followed by a noun (の). You can see this easily once we start expanding the verb: ともだちと うみで およぐのが すきです ("I like swimming in the ocean with my friends.").